Young Musicians Concert 2022: An adventure of DoRéMi

In two weeks' time, our young musicians will showcase what they have learnt on the stage. On 3 December 2022, 1:30pm, Carol Ng's Music will present the Young Musicians Concert 2022: An adventure of DoRéMi. It will take place at Cynthia Poulton Hall, St Peter's Cathedral. Eighteen young and teenage students will showcase their musical talents and play their favorite music. Besides famous tunes of classical music, movie songs, for instance, Harry Potter, and duos will be performed. Get your tickets at Eventbrite.

基於心理學角度的鋼琴演奏中緊張心理研究

鋼琴演奏是一門具有高度技巧性和操作性的表演藝術，更是一種時間的藝術，它要求演奏者在演奏的一剎那把平時千錘百煉的成果完美地、創造性地表現出來。而應用心理學演奏學派認為鋼琴演奏行為是一種複雜的心理活動過程，是演奏者心理思維與運動機能相互作用的總和，在整個演奏的動態流程中，始終貫穿著“視覺、聽覺、觸覺、運動覺和記憶、情感、想像、注意、思維等內在的複雜的綜合的心理活動，演奏者不但要協調好各種不同的知覺，還要協調好知覺以外的諸多心理因素的關係。”

演奏者出於對可能出現的失敗的恐懼，或對外界評價的顧慮等因素，在演出前和演出中往往會出現緊張的情緒，正常的或適度的緊張有利於集中註意力，不會影響演奏效果，而過度的緊張心理卻會給演奏者帶來很大的表演障礙，造成演奏失常，甚至造成精神崩潰從而無法完成正常演奏，一旦經過就無法重複亦無法補救，所以有人說鋼琴演奏是一門帶有“冒險性”的表演藝術。但以往的鋼琴教學與研究多側重於彈奏技術與樂感兩個方面，而對演奏過程中起支配作用的心理活動常常被忽視，如何消除鋼琴演奏中的緊張心理已經成為一個需要迫切解決的問題。

一、形成鋼琴演奏中緊張心理的原因

著名的鋼琴演奏家羅莎琳·圖雷克（ Rosalyn Tureck ）曾經說過：“有的時候，匆忙和壓力會導致你緊張。這也是公開演出生涯的一個組成部分。” 我國著名鋼琴教育家但昭義認為：“鋼琴演奏者心理素質的好壞，直接影響著演奏的學習過程和臨場演奏的效果。鋼琴演奏者的心理素質是包括了氣質、性格、情緒反應的特點、自信心、自尊心、好勝心、認知模式以及心理承受能力等在內的各種心理品質的綜合。”在鋼琴演奏中, 導致鋼琴演奏者出現心理緊張的原因很多，既有其客觀方面的原因，又有主觀方面的原因，關鍵的是演奏者未能將自己的生理、心理活動調節至最佳演奏狀態。

1. 心理素質方面

心理學中有名的“耶克斯·多德森”定律指出，動機強度與工作效率的關係呈倒“ U ”形，也就是說動機太弱，內驅力激發不起來，工作效率就不高；相反，動機太強，超過了一定的限度，工作效率反而越來越低。在大多數情況下，演奏中斷情況的出現是演奏者精神過於集中或突然高度集中所導致的。許多演奏者在舞台上會突然想起平時練琴時沒有想過的問題，比如左手下一個音該是什麼? 主題下一次出現在哪一個聲部? 這裡要不要踩踏板等等，這時演奏者思想過度集中，處處小心翼翼，生怕彈錯，導致了鋼琴演奏者註意力的控制失調，影響手指的運動和音樂的表達，從而影響鋼琴演奏的連貫性和準確性。

值得關注的是，鋼琴演奏者經常會患有特殊社交恐怖症。他們在與別人的一般交往中，並沒有什麼異常，可是當需要他們上台表演時，他們會感到極度的恐懼，常常出現臉紅、口乾、結巴、輕微顫抖，甚至愣在當場。大多數社交恐怖症患者都是過分的關注周圍的評頭論足，渴望獲得別人讚許，內心不斷的進行“排號”，在公開演出期間，腦海裡總出現自己如何在觀眾面前出醜，讓自己多麼難堪的局面，進而表現出極度的焦慮，導致演奏者精神無法集中在演奏上，甚至“拋錨”，演奏不下去。

另外，相關研究表明：“緊張心理的產生與氣質有著密切的關係。含多血、膽汁型的人易緊張怯場，含粘液質的人不易緊張怯場。”可見，緊張與演奏者的個性特徵有著密切關係。一般來說，性格和氣質上有缺陷的人比較容易在公開演奏中出現怯場、恐懼的心理反應。意志堅強、善於自控和勇於表現的人，相對於一個意志薄弱、羞怯靦腆的人，怯場緊張的可能和程度要遠小得多。

2. 技術掌握方面

在鋼琴演奏中，演奏者的技術水平決定是否引起緊張以及緊張出現程度的關鍵。鋼琴演奏是感知再現練習和現場發揮的一種“再創作”過程，是一種來源於練習但又高於練習的過程。然而很多人在平時練琴中演奏技術粗糙，靠的是無數次機械性的重複，在基本無意識的狀態中將樂曲彈熟，沒有建立起自己的一套演奏“程序”。一旦演奏者上台時感覺自己對樂曲沒有完全掌握、技術上的難點沒有完全克服，或感覺對樂曲的風格、表現還無法把握，甚至背譜準備不足等等，這些都會引起演奏者的心理緊張、情緒混亂，此時在平時練習中沒有解決的技術問題就會在演奏過程中暴露無遺，從而影響和破壞了演奏的連貫，這反過來又會引起演奏者越來越緊張，形成一個不可收拾的惡性循環，最後一敗塗地而告終。中國音樂學院副教授週為民也曾說過：“當演奏者對樂曲某一個技巧或段落沒有把握時就會引起緊張心理, 這種緊張心理的程度會隨著演奏時間的臨近而不斷增加。隨著鋼琴演奏者的技術水平不斷提高, 演奏中的緊張心理就會逐漸在不斷地藝術實踐中得以減弱或排除。”需要說明的是，筆者這裡所說的演奏者技術水平不是指絕對水平，而是指演奏者對自己彈奏水平的估計，即相對水平。

3. 舞台經驗方面

舞台緊張是當眾演奏中常見的一種心理身體反應，“鋼琴演奏者在舞台上要承受得住巨大的心理壓力和精神煎熬，這對於演奏的成功是至關重要的。”演奏者是舞台的核心，是闡述作品內涵的最主要表現要素。有人說，一名優秀的演奏者來自於豐富的舞台經驗，而豐富舞台經驗只能從舞台上得來。只有在舞台上才能學會以應付身體、氣候、服裝、燈光等帶來諸多不適，使音樂表演得以自如的發揮。我們會發現，有豐富的演出經驗的鋼琴大師往往能自如地控制臨場演奏時的心理狀態，能很快地調節現場發生的各種不良心理、生理反應。而缺乏演出經驗的鋼琴演奏者，儘管自然條件很好, 平常在琴房中彈得也不錯，一旦到大課室考試或公開比賽卻不行，這是由於環境的變化造成的。這些演奏者由一個封閉的、熟悉的環境，轉移到一個開闊的、陌生的環境，往往會由於對琴、手指觸感、座位、房子大小差別引起的音響上、共鳴上等等的不適應，加上面對著各異的觀眾，演奏者的心情不由自主的緊張起來。所以說，演奏的成功與否與演奏者不同的演奏經歷有關，比如第一次上台演奏就失敗的演奏者要比其他人更容易緊張，在今後的演奏中心理壓力和負擔也更重，從而他演奏的心理緊張程度也更高。

4. 臨場突發因素

人的心理不僅依賴於人腦或人體而產生，還會受到外界環境對於演奏者的心理干擾。而在每一次正式的演奏中，都難免會發生來自外界或演奏者自身的不可預測的變化，比如舞台上的燈光突然熄滅，後台突然發出的巨大聲響，觀眾突然間的躁動，台下手機的鳴叫，觀眾拍照時的閃光，或鋼琴某根琴弦斷了等等。這些突如其來的事情往往會使得演奏者生理髮生急劇變化，心跳加快，呼吸急促，兩手發抖，手心冒汗等等，這都是由於過分焦慮和恐懼引起的。這種過度緊張使得演奏者的腦神經活動的興奮與抑制喪失平衡，從而出現難以控制的心慌、不安、緊張，思維處於抑制狀態，從而打亂了演奏思路，造成演奏失誤。因此，臨場突發事件對演奏者是一種考驗，要求演奏者必須要有堅持到底的決心，無論如何也要保證演奏完整性，集中註意力繼續彈完，所以，演奏者在舞台上表現自己對作品的理解時，靈敏而迅速的應變能力顯得尤為關鍵。

二、如何調整鋼琴演奏中的緊張心理

著名小提琴家帕爾曼曾經說過：“緊張是生活中的一種實際情況，你必須與他相處，與他相處得越好，你就把它控制得越好。”在公開演奏時，演奏者充分的技術準備是“硬件”，而良好的心理素質和堅強的意志力則是演奏中的“軟件”。“硬件”是整個演奏活動的基礎，是演奏的關鍵，演奏者必須具備良好的技術手段與音樂修養作為完整演奏的基石。然而再精湛的技藝，作為“硬件”都要通過“軟件”表現出來，所以，演奏者可以在鋼琴演奏的練習過程中學會自我調整的能力，提高公開演奏時所需的心理適應能力。

1. 心理素質的調節

明確目的、樹立信心是成功的鋼琴演奏必不可少的心理保證。阿圖爾·魯賓斯坦曾說：“當我走上舞台, 我便是國王。”這句至理名言告訴我們充分的自信是征服廣大觀眾的基礎，在舞台上只能信心百倍, 肯定、堅決、勇往直前，不能懷疑自我，不能自暴自棄，堅信自己必定能創造美好的瞬間。如果一個人沒有任何心理負擔而專心於演奏，他的演奏就會隨心所欲，把自己的精力都集中到樂曲的音樂表現和演奏之中，最終達到美感與技巧的完美統一。但是，這種自信心不是盲目自信，而應當建立在平時高標準的嚴格練習、多次藝術實踐的鍛煉和演奏前的認真準備以及實事求是的自我分析的基礎上。只有充分的客觀的自信，才能真正實現“彈指間，琴人合一”的至境。

良好的情緒和心境有助於鋼琴演奏者的音樂表演，可以使演奏者充滿激情地演奏，而不良的情緒可以抑制神經系統的興奮，阻礙演奏技術和音樂表現的正常發揮。演奏者要通過表演技巧把內心的美感體驗以流動的音響予以準確、充分地展現，而這些有賴於演奏者聽覺、記憶、意象、聯覺、情感、視力及心力等各種心理系統的良好協調。所以，演奏者應該格外注重演奏期間的心理保養，應避免精神和身體受到任何意外的刺激，保證身心處於舒適、輕鬆、自然、和諧的統一狀態，達到演奏者生理、心理活動的最佳狀態。

心理學中有一種稱為“相互心情的規律”的現象：當你心神不安時, 裝作安祥的樣子，同時運用呼吸調節法，利用緩慢的深呼吸穩定情緒，這是臨上場前的一種急救辦法。當然，積極暗示法也是一種非常有效的心理調適方法。周海宏在《對部分鋼琴演奏心理操作技能的研究》一文中指出“彈奏控制的核心問題是與註意的心理相關的”，並經過試驗研究得出“彈奏控制中的心理操作技能的核心是控制注意的分配與轉移，最終達到對鋼琴演奏全過程中的每一個方面的良好控制，以使彈奏穩定、流暢、輕鬆、自如。”在演奏過程中，演奏者要全神貫注地聆聽自己的演奏，排除一切雜念，努力把由於緊張而引起的興奮中心轉移到對音樂體驗的興奮中去，把全部注意力投入演奏樂曲的情感交流中去，盡情愉悅的享受樂曲帶來的美感，那麼他就會忽視其他非表演事物的干擾，這樣既保證了演奏者的正常技術發揮，也讓緊張的情緒煙消雲散。

2. 鋼琴技術的準備

鋼琴演奏是一項技術含量很高的藝術活動，熟練的技能技巧和流暢自如的演奏，是表現作品的起碼要求，也是減少演奏者心理壓力的關鍵。所以鋼琴技術的準備是演出前的最重要準備工作，演奏者必須經過較長時間的艱苦訓練才能獲得較高的技術。正如著名的鋼琴家、指揮家弗拉基米爾·阿什肯那奇所說：“我認為對於開音樂會前膽怯的人來說，最好的一種預防辦法是練琴時認真努力。”所謂“藝高人膽大”，也就是說對樂曲的熟練掌握和積累的技術足夠，演奏者才能夠樹立信心，抑制不安，心平氣和，從容自如的進行演奏。反之，如果演奏者在台下的練習不流暢，那麼上台或進考場時心裡自然沒底，隨之而來就更緊張了。可見，提高我們的演奏能力和技術更顯得重要。

朱工一教授在《朱工一鋼琴教學論》一書中提到: “練琴是發現問題和解決問題的過程，要保持清醒的頭腦，當自己疲勞時只能毫無表情地一遍一遍地重複，這種練琴是無效的，如果讓腦子間隔休息一下再練就會有新鮮感。”這就給我們的啟示：練琴必須遵循科學的方法，提高演奏水平不僅僅是用時間堆出來的，還要看練琴質量的高低。要想提高練琴質量，關鍵是要明確每次練琴的目的，比如是準確地視奏一首或一段新譜或改正老師在課上提示的幾點要求。另外，從認知學習理論來看，沒有心理因素指導的純機械的生理練習，解決不了鋼琴演奏技術問題，彈一組音、學習一個彈奏技巧都需要頭腦指揮手指等演奏器官去工作，而不是純粹地器官活動。所以，每次練琴都應該有計劃、有步聚、有目的，要盡可能的仔細研究樂譜，將所有細節都考慮到，做到心中有數，不斷地聆聽和調整自己的演奏，逐步解決技術問題，建立起自己的演奏“程序”，不是盲目地一遍遍地過，“練琴藝術的內涵在於藝術，在於創造性新鮮活潑而天才洋溢的事物”，“我們練習去注意感覺經驗的各種細節，讓對聲響、觸鍵和運動的感覺力一刻不停地漫潤我們的身體和意識。”具體的練琴方法有慢速練習法、重點難點練習法、分段練習法、變節奏練法等等，但無論採用哪種方法，我們都要以表達完美的音樂形象為目標去進行技巧練習，計算音樂形象所需要的力度、速度、音色等等，不斷追求完美的音樂境界。這就是幫助演奏者熟練、準確掌握的彈奏技巧的關鍵。

另外，波蘭鋼琴家、教育家和作曲家約瑟夫·霍夫曼曾經說過：“在快速重複彈奏複雜的音型時，一些細小的錯誤、失誤和缺陷往往被我們忽略；我們重複快速彈奏的次數越多，這些缺點的數量也就越多，他們最終導致演奏者對音樂感覺的完全模糊”。基於此，演奏者還需要注重鋼琴基本功練習，正如麥美生在《鋼琴演奏怯場的心理剖析》一文曾指出：“指法混亂也是造成演奏'卡殼'中斷的重要原因。學生常會因為平時指法訓練不嚴格，不固定，順手溜，上台稍一疏忽就會出錯，錯一個指法就接不下去，心一慌就會出現連鎖反應、惡性循環。”

3. 舞台實踐經驗的積累

人類的認知與行為的互動關係就是心理與實踐的相互關係，鋼琴演奏心理的本質就是人腦對藝術實踐的現實反應，藝術實踐對於鋼琴演奏者提高心理素質有著重要作用。鋼琴的舞台演奏是一門綜合藝術，舞台經驗對於演奏的效果尤為重要。一個有幾十年公開演奏經驗的演奏者當然比幾十年都關在琴房裡獨自練習的人演奏成功的機率要高。舞台經驗較少的演奏者應該培養敢於當眾演奏的慾望，抓住機會，在小範圍聽眾面前多公開演奏，逐漸適應大的觀眾環境，並反复“走台”。所以，在鋼琴教學中，教師應該創造機會讓學生參加演奏實踐，實踐機會的增多會幫助演奏者形成條件反射，隨時隨地適應舞台演出。

在正式演奏之前，演奏者可以先演奏給同學、親朋好友聽，以建立起演奏者與聽眾之間心靈交流的橋樑。同時, 演奏者首先要了解演奏廳的大小、觀眾席的數目、鋼琴的位置、舞台感、從出台口到鋼琴的距離等，尤其是音響反射的狀況和燈光的亮度等在內的環境。其次是適應新的鋼琴。因為每一架鋼琴的性格都不一樣。試琴時，第一要做的是輕輕從最低音到最高音慢而柔地來回彈幾遍半音階，熟悉鋼琴的音色和音量，檢查鍵盤音高是否均勻。若有個別音明顯不均勻, 應立即請技師予以調整。如果沒有可能臨時調整，就需要牢記哪幾個音需要特別的觸鍵，特別響的鍵應注意彈的輕一些；特別反應慢的鍵應注意離鍵快一些；特別悶的鍵應注意彈重一些等等。這樣做可以有效地避免不必要的緊張和怯場。走台和預演對於心理素質較弱的人來說，的確是一種行之有效的訓練方法，演奏者通過多次這樣的練習, 可以使演奏的緊張心理在這樣的環境中得到控制和排除。

4. 良好演奏情緒的培養

演出前，演奏者已經對樂曲有了比較準確而穩定的整體感，基本克服了演奏技術上的難點，對樂曲的內涵和情感也有了深刻的體驗和表現能力。在演奏中，演奏者的心理活動只能集中於音樂本身和鋼琴演奏的操作，並且思維在表演心理活動中的各個環節上要安排得當，否則，會出現顧此失彼的現象。所以，演奏者應該培養良好的演出情緒，在演奏時從容鎮定，達到最佳身體狀態、最佳技術狀態和最佳心理狀態的最佳演奏狀態，有利於演奏者創造熱情的激發。音樂表演是一種情感體驗藝術，只有通過演奏者富有激情的演奏才能引發聽眾的情感交流，使演奏者與欣賞者在演奏中始終融為一體，體現音樂創作、音樂表演、音樂欣賞的有機統一。良好的演奏情緒“可以使演奏者將音樂中各種不同的情感控制於股掌之中，不會因為一種表情而放棄平衡，也不會對接下來的表情毫無準備。”

然而，人的生理活動和心理活動是兩個截然不同的概念，心理活動是在生理機能的基礎上建立的。當演奏者在某一環境建立了一種相對穩定的心理活動，就會使演奏者產生一種適宜該環境的演奏心理狀態，如果改變了這種環境就會引起演奏者的心裡緊張和焦慮，使演奏者的神經系統處於緊張狀態。所以演奏者還應該注重應變心理的訓練，儘管平時在一個狹小的、自我封閉的環境中練習，如果演奏者做到把環境放在心裡，保持對環境的敏銳感覺，它就會成為演奏者日積月累的經驗的一部分，當到了一個全新的環境，“演奏者不再有恐懼心理，既可以實現輕鬆，也可以保持對環境的注意力。”在遇到意外的情況時，演奏者不慌張，能迅速讓自己平靜下來，調整好心態，在最短的時間內重新回到作品中來。

5. 身體健康的保證

機能主義心理學認為情緒（心理）伴隨有某種固定的生理反應，也可能反之，固定的生理反應帶來情緒。所以，可以通過適當的控制生理反應，來達到控制情緒的目的。鋼琴演奏是一種腦力和體力相互協作的活動，平時除了注意加強體育鍛煉外，還要以輕鬆自然的方式利用自己的身體。其實，演奏者同時也是運動員，因為演奏樂器對小肌肉有著極高的要求，如果我們過快的運動小肌肉，整天整夜地重複運動，那麼演奏者的小肌肉就會越來越疲勞，甚至受傷。然而，大部分演奏者卻沒有意識到這種疲勞在增加，在他們看來，在練習中沒有做什麼艱苦的工作。布魯琴爾曾說過“姿勢和運動會對一個人控制樂器的能力和音樂的效果產生巨大的影響。”所以在演出期間，演奏者尤其要保持良好的身體狀況，不要過分疲勞，大腦過度勞累會造成頭昏耳鳴，一旦出現意外情況，大腦的興奮與抑製過程就會失調，神經活動機能減退，加劇心理緊張程度。

總之，鋼琴演奏是一種複雜的演奏心理活動，緊張心理是普遍存在的一種現象，但是經過長期的反復不斷的心理素質培養、技術訓練及舞台實踐鍛煉，學會調整演奏前和演奏中的心態，機智地應對各種突發事件，我們每一個人最終都能克服緊張心理，順利地走上屬於自己的燦爛舞台。

轉載自「Piano Pianoproshop Pro」(18/9/2015)

The science of stage fright (and how to overcome it) - Mikael Cho

MUSIC FESTIVAL PRE-CONTEST WORKSHOP 校際音樂節賽前工作坊

Date：17 Jan, 2016 (Sunday)
Time：9:30AM
Venue：Recital Hall, Hong Kong City Hall

• Familiarize contesters with the competition by performing at one of the frequently used venues
• Play on one of the official grand pianos of the competition
• Obtain a second opinion from a professional adjudicator
• Tips shared by adjudicator
• Each performer will be presented a certificate

This year, Mr Kent Lee, a graduate of the Trinity College of Music, London, director of Hong Kong Association for Music Educators and the conductor of Hong Kong Wind Symphony, will offer valuable tips to our little performers.

For more information, please visit our news page.

音樂比賽亂象，專家：音樂重修養，應紮實基本功

 

有家長反映，全國學生音樂比賽演奏時間不足，孩子表演到一半就被迫喊停。負責主辦決賽的教育部國立藝術教育館表演藝術教育組主任蕭炳欽解釋，家長反映情形為初賽人數較多的縣市，為考量表演效果及比賽公平性，難免會壓縮表演時間。

但有音樂家卻對此種情況表示憂心，留俄鋼琴家葉孟儒就說，曾有參賽者只準備比賽時間的曲子段落，但不小心彈太快，準備好的段落演奏完就呆立舞台，剩下的居然不會彈，「立刻就給他零分！」他補充，「演奏完一首曲子是音樂修養，不是習題」，參賽者應認真看待音樂這件事。

台灣絃樂團首席譚正也說，有回比賽報名者較少，評審看時間還夠，就要小提琴參賽者比預定的四分鐘多拉一分鐘，沒想到參賽者連接下來的三十秒都不會拉，「讀文章該從頭念到尾，音樂怎麼能只演奏一部分？」他強調，「只練習樂曲前三分鐘很炫的部分來比賽，根本不是音樂。」有時他還會要求參賽者直接演奏曲目後半部，才測得出參賽者實力。

對此，蕭炳欽表示，明年三月的決賽，每位參賽者均擁有十到廿分鐘的充分表演時間。

新聞來源：聯合新聞網
圖片來源：翻攝網路，相片中參賽團體及學校均非當事人

 

自《MUZIKAIR閱讀》

比賽的威力（下）

新學年終於開始了，一浪浪的校際比賽將接踵而來。上回談到為學生在技術和思想上準備的重要性，今次我們看看其他考慮因素，讓我們為學生準備得更盡善盡美。

從學生角度看比賽
俗語有云：「一樣米養百樣人。」人人性格不同，學生也不例外。由於「比賽」帶來一定的壓力，能面對及承受壓力的學生，在臨場表現方面，較其他學生為佳；相反，性格內向的學生多在熟悉的環境中發揮自如，緊張的比賽氣氛，會使他們表現大打折扣。由此可見，「比賽」並不完全適合所有學生，家長和老師可從學生得益角度，來決定是否參與比賽。再者，學生的「個人選擇」，也應是考慮的因素。因為，要把「比賽」成為正面和學習成長的機會，學生積極參與是不可缺少的。唯有那些樂意參與的學生，才會認真看待準備過程中，務求在音樂追求上得到更大進步，最終能藉此機會，在個人學習上得到健康快樂的成長。

為學生選擇合適的比賽
既然我們以「比賽」作為正面和學習成長的機會，那麼，家長和老師就要小心地選擇合適的比賽。一般比賽均有指定參賽樂曲，家長和老師在選擇時，應考慮學生的程度，切勿挑選要求過高或過低的比賽。長時間練習或不當地彈奏過度困難的樂曲可導致學生受傷，造成永久損害，得不償失；反過來說，為求奪標而參加低於學生程度的比賽，亦不能提升其程度，也是自欺欺人的行為。家長和老師應多加審慎，避免在小小學生的心中種下這種扭曲的態度。

毋懼挫敗繼續向前
人生遇上挫敗，十常八九。若要被每個「挫敗」打倒，而站不起來，「人生」就變得十分可憐了。生命要活得下去，關鍵是我們如何看待「挫敗」，堅持屢敗屢戰的精神，才能積極地面對生命。對於年紀小小的學生，「比賽」是他們的小插曲。若然成功獲獎，必要學到勝而不驕的態度；但若失敗，就必要接納自己的不足之處，從中學習，尋求進步的空間，總不要垂頭喪氣，把責任推到別人身上。只有懂得在挫敗中成長，才可以在人生添上更多色彩。

家長為子女提供不同的進步機會，務求讓他們得到最好的成長，「比賽」實是可用的一個提升機會。盼望家長不要忽略比賽所帶來威力，為孩子來一針「心靈預防針」，以積極態度來迎接新一年的比賽，讓這「威力」成為孩子既正面而有價值的經歷。

文：彭雯蕙博士
自《開心爸媽》(9/10/2012)

Practising for Perfection in Performance

This document, though full of interesting things, is rather lengthy - can I suggest you print it out and then digest it. (But please respect that it is my hard work and research and inform me if you are going to use it! I wrote it for a school project a long time ago when I was 15 and didn't know what referencing was!)

 

What Makes a Good Performance?
What makes a composition a work of art? What is the special quality that starts a chain of inspirations that stay with the listener and stimulate creative thought of their own? A Beethoven symphony may remain popular through several centuries, fresh through thousands of performances, because its creative fire continues to kindle the imagination, to stir emotion in all of us. It is impossible to miss the spirit of genuine art. If, before an audience, we could fashion a beautiful rose, arrange each leaf and petal until it is perfect, and then make it live for an instant, it would be an unforgettable experience for all who watched. This is what must happen when we re-create music, when we make a composition live for a few minutes, for half an hour; the quality of living force must be there if our re-creation is to be meaningful.
We receive sparks of inspiration, store them carefully in our memories, and when released, they fire our own re-creative power.
Musicians can only reflect what they are (as in a mirror). However, with strong discipline, thorough training and broad and bold musical conceptions, we can capture the power to re-create. It is therefore personal factors that contribute towards a good performance as well as technical mastery of the instrument in question.
What are These Personal Factors?
According to psychologists, whatever we know and believe, we have learned through the perception of our senses. The intensity of each sense varies from person to person. Some of us are dominated by sight perception; others receive their strongest impressions through the ear or by kinaesthetic absorption.
It would appear that modern education tends to dull the subtle variety of sensory reaction that exists in every child. It may therefore be the early application of undulled sensory perception that creates a child prodigy; therefore later education can either "educate away" the child's untutored acuteness of reaction or stimulate certain traits that will develop into artistic individuality.
Many personal factors contribute to the making of an artist: a high degree of imagination, intelligence, sensitivity, flexibility; the willingness to learn from every situation, to plod doggedly even when the going gets rough; the courage of our musical convictions even when fashionable musical-opinion-makers leave us in the minority.
A musician must be a stubborn optimist who is willing to spend hours, weeks, even months on the dull problems of technique. Sometimes faith is the only thing to carry us over a veritable chasm of despair.
In a performance, the heart, mind, and hands must all work together. The heart should be filled to overflowing with wonder and beauty; the mind must learn to communicate these emotions; the hands must obediently, and under all conditions, execute the musical ideas that heart and mind command. We must be able to imagine every tone, every phrase, the whole composition as we wish it to sound and we must be able to project the piece so that the listener receives precisely the impression we wish to create.
Why Must We Practice?
We must practise in order to develop flexibility, sensitivity and maximum mastery of our instrument. Music is an integral part of living - a part of the air we breathe, a language more full of meaning than any spoken tongue. Communicative performance is the glorious beacon that can make even humdrum practising a joy!
Technical problems CAN be solved because they are controlled by the mind. Whatever the difficulty, sufficient mental effort during practise produces a satisfactory solution.
We practise to make secure what we have learnt from our surroundings i.e. teachers and emotions. The main psychological advantage of taking lessons is the stimulus from an outside source you respect, until such time as you can find the stimulus within yourself. We practise to become competent, which in turn, if we concentrate, will make us confident.
The Theories of Practising
Alfred Cortot once said, "Music is poetry. Once you have played, it's over. You can never express the same thing twice in the same way."
The first rule of practising is to 'LISTEN' (as opposed to 'hearing') and to learn from all sources with an open, investigating mind and with the determination to make a piece 'sound right' regardless of the means required to achieve this end. We must think of our instruments as part of us - an extension of our equipment to express musical thought. The audience must never be conscious of the instrument, therefore, neither should we. (We should only be conscious of the quality of sound produced.) We cannot play for an audience unless, or until, we have confidence in ourselves. (And we must practise to be confident and sure of the music.)
There are many different theories for practising. Here are the three basic rules:
(1) Concentrate for the full length of the musical line, without interruption.
(2) Determine the mood to be expressed and make every detail point towards it.
(3) Find the focal point or climax of a phrase or section in order to give direction to your musical thought.
To establish the mood of a phrase, to convey what we believe to be the precise meaning the composer wishes to express, is one of the greatest problems facing a musician and one of the most thrilling adventures in a days work. The language of music is the most eloquent of all, but it is also elusive, working by innuendo only, suggesting rather than stating, sometimes confusing us as to the composer's real intentions.
So, what can we do to establish the mood of the music? First, isolate the musical phrase, then decide what the phrase is meant to express. After deciding, experiment on your instrument until you succeed in establishing the mood musically.
You must also, at all times, give the music direction - make it 'go' somewhere. (Even if you are only practising.) A melody without direction becomes purposeless. Every sound must be beautiful. We must never forget the infinite variety of tonal shading we are able to produce, the variations of our touch. Technical exercises and studies must also sound beautiful. You must use 'crescendos' and 'diminuendos', listen to your sound, polish your tones and aim at an even quality.
Always use the imagination to help create a mood. When a musician uses their imagination, they stop playing mere notes - they make music. To create and sustain a mood is a delicate procedure - the wand that casts the spell and holds an audiences' attention. Without the 'mood', even the finest performance remains but a reproduction of notes, untouched by human warmth, that may command respect but will never capture the imagination. It is the adventure of the unknown, the vast imponderable area created by the questions whether we have chosen the right mood for our interpretation, and how we communicate it to the audience that supplies the personal touch, makes a concert interesting, exciting and alive.
Franz Liszt had a method of practising that is worth noting because it was the foundations for the revolutionary technique that established him as the "father of modern pianism". He was not yet twenty, living in Paris, when he was overawed by Paganini's phenomenal virtuosity and pledged himself to achieve on the keyboard what this man achieved on four strings. He developed his method by himself and submitted himself to a merciless drill of his fingers six hours a day:
Scales in octaves for two hours to make his fingers both strong and supple; he lifted his hands high and attacked the keys with full energy. The same for chords and arpeggios. Repetition of notes, octaves and chords on the same key for muscular control; trills with the other three fingers resting on the keys. He was careful not to move arms and shoulders, or to bend his head forward; he sat straight and bent his head backward, but very slightly.
New pieces were studied in five stages. He started by reading very slowly, four or five times, each time from a different viewpoint. First only the notes, secondly note values, thirdly nuances, changes in expression; fourthly analysing bass and descant, always searching for the melodies that could be accentuated; finally he decided on the tempi. The he began to practise: he analysed his own emotional reactions and after passionate passages would proceed as if indifferent or too tired to express the natural slackening of feeling after an emotional storm. He insisted that passionate self-abandon to the music had to dictate a pianist's interpretation, but he had to have perfect physical control of his hands. "Never must your fingers stand in the way of your artistic interpretation," Carl Czerny, his own teacher, had always said to him.
Always listen constructively when you practise. A good way of doing this is to imagine yourself standing away from the instrument. i.e. imagine yourself as the audience.
Chances are that three-quarters of your repertoire will contain passages too difficult or awkward to be learned by the practising of mere scales and arpeggios. We all have some little bete-noire over which we stumble and even though it may not throw us, it jars us and makes us expand so much thought and energy that we cannot concentrate properly on the rest of the composition.
Many technical exercise books have been written for the purpose of training the fingers to overcome stumbling blocks in certain pieces. However this only solves part of the problem. When you have finished you will know the exercise but not the passage that you are having problems with. The only solution would appear therefore, to make a special study of each problem as it is met, isolate it, turn it into an exercise and, after the difficulty is conquered, put the passage back into the context of the composition.
You may suffer physical pain but you must learn to endure it. You will emerge in the end invigorated with a tremendous margin of reserve, and with the knowledge of complete mastery, which is well worth the effort.
Practising is dull time-consuming work! But daily practise will almost guarantee absolute perfection at every performance. The possibility of becoming "derailed" is almost nil.
Ear Training
Ear Training is extremely important, and more people than we realise have absolute or relative pitch that can be developed. (Only about 2% of the world population is biologically tone-deaf!) The trained listener has a decided advantage in learning music; every effort should be made to develop the inner and outer ears' listening abilities. Nadia Boulanger of the Paris Conservatoire, makes all her pupils work their harmony exercises away from the piano in order to develop the capabilities of their inner ears.
Interpretation
Don't imitate every idea in interpretation that you like. Interpretive concepts are very personal; diamonds in one person's hand may be glass splinters in another's. In music, mere imitation sounds synthetic. Only the genuine individual idea, based on careful study of a score and a composer's personality is convincing.
Here are two stories that involve the same composition and two opposing viewpoints.
(a) When the pianist Soulima Stravinsky (Igor Stravinsky's son), was living in Paris as a student, he had the great desire to master Liszt's "Feux Follets". He went to Vladimir Horowitz who gave him practise suggestions that he followed over a period of time. Apparently still unable to master "Feux Follets", here turned to Horowitz and was told: "It is within the province of some of us to accomplish certain things at the piano, while others among us just are never capable of mastering certain problems. Don't worry about it; you are a great pianist just the same."
(b) When I was about eleven, I asked Rachmaninoff what he considered the most technically difficult piece written for piano. He deliberated for a few minutes then said: " Well, I suppose that one of the most difficult compositions is the Liszt etude "Feux Follets". "I want to play it". "Oh no, not with your small hands. You could not do it yet." Now I knew I had to master it. I set to work and made up crazy, unorthodox fingering, broke passages into two hands, used hand positions that would have made Leschetizky turn in his grave, but I played all the notes and eventually mastered "Feux Follets" (Ruth Slenczynska)
The point illustrated is that the problem doesn't exist that cannot be solved by determined imagination. No individual, no book has all the answers. Many of the most important solutions are in your head, your heart and your hands.
Absorption and Projection
A composition isn't learned; it is absorbed. It becomes as much a part of you as a finger or a tooth; even better because, along with your mental facilities, it usually improves with age. However, before you can absorb a new piece of music, you must be absorbed by it. It will not be too different from falling in love: unconditional fascination, desire to understand weaknesses or roughnesses, willingness to give a great deal of yourself in order to receive. Mastery of a work of art must be earned. Never be overawed by technical difficulties. A composition may have been written by a musical genius, but even the greatest genius is, first and foremost, a human being, an imaginative human being who wants to share the fruit of his creative upheaval with petty mortals like you and me. It is ours for the taking, with his blessing.
The first step is to get acquainted with the "musical geography" of a new composition; we have to decide how we want it to sound and about what speed it should go. Then familiarize yourself with all the notes and markings that are present. Always listen critically and try to benefit from every mistake. Are you making the music say what you intend it to say?
Here are a few things to watch for:
(1) Don't get discouraged during any part of the learning process. "The darkest hour is that before the dawn." Sometimes it may seem to you that for days, perhaps months, you can't get anywhere with a certain composition, yet you will master it eventually. You may have to give it a rest for a few days. You may have become too closely involved with the composition for clear self-criticism; you may have 'over-practised', grown tense. The chances are that you will be amazed at how well it goes after a brief interval, but, if it doesn't, you weren't ready and you'd have to start all over again. Just don't give up!
(2) Always have your music handy so that while you practise you can refer to it whenever you have the slightest question. Also, use the most authentic edition you can find and be sure to obey all the markings; thus you will never have to doubt the authority of your performance. If someone offers a suggestion, listen with an open mind, but consult the score before you follow it. (This is not required for fingering and pedalling as the composer rarely writes this in the score.) Never choose "tradition" over the indications in the original score. Tradition is a much-abused word; Toscanini defined it as "the last bad performance".
(3) Be careful not to over-accent, or to place an accent where none was written. The accents are like road marks that you need badly on strange territory. Once you are more familiar with a road, you may still want to have the map handy, but you no longer have to slow down to read what the road sign says. After you have travelled the road frequently and come to know it well, you won't even notice the markers and will enjoy the scenery. As you play, watch for your little accents and exaggerations and eliminate them. They won't help you in performance and may damage your interpretation.
(4) Don't exaggerate your teacher's suggestions. However we must not use the same device for different compositions unless it is in character. For example, a Viennese Waltz by Strauss will gain by the now 'traditional' lilting hesitation between the second and third beat, but a Chopin Waltz would be ruined if played in that manner.
(5) Avoid mannerisms. Theatricals went out of fashion with the silent films, in which gestures had to tell the whole story without the spoken word. Mannerisms are not only in bad taste but physically impossible except for artists who are not really engrossed in the music. Besides the natural, effortless abandon that comes with good, relaxed technique is sufficiently spectacular in itself.
Acquiring a Repertoire
In the old days, before the great masters had composed our repertoires, musicians had to write their own music when they performed and taught. Bach wrote most of his inventions for his children; Mozart, Beethoven, Chopin, Schumann, Liszt wrote music for themselves or their students. They wrote it, of course, in a way to make the best of the shape of their hands, their special abilities, their favourite devices.
In a similar manner, the musician will choose a repertoire that will exploit his best qualities. Therefore the most important lesson of all is to think for yourself and let experience be your teacher.
The real musicians will be forever seeking new means of projection, looking over new literature, making up experimental programmes. Art has no boundaries and the horizons of accomplishment are always beckoning with new challenges.

by Carole B. Miller
from From "Mostlywind"( December 05, 2011   )

A Discussion on Performance Anxiety

Discuss psychological theories of how and why performance anxiety affects musicians, evaluating the effectiveness of different coping strategies, and suggesting ways in which future research might increase understanding of the experience of performing. Give concrete examples for the phenomena that you discuss wherever possible.

 

If you were to ask most people what makes them different from a computer, they would probably answer emotion - the ability to feel things. Human beings do not act like machines. However, not all our emotions are positive. Some like anger and fear can be quite destructive. They fill us with tensions -especially in the muscles. This tension is caused by an overload of Adrenalin, which enters the bloodstream whenever you face a stressful situation. It causes hyper-alertness. In part, this reaction is a survival response. It is known as the 'fight or flight reaction'.

Mostly we only use a small amount of our potential strength and energy to live, but during the 'fight or flight reaction', the body changes the way it operates physically in order to maximise the strength and energy. This reaction is a very powerful response that serves an important survival function, though it is not quite as helpful when we are faced with non-physical threats such as the fear of making mistakes and performing in public. Because these actions do not require physical action (such as running from a threat), we do not use nor absorb the energy the body has given us and we quickly become stressed. In a performing situation this build up of adrenalin causes symptoms like shaking, excessive sweating and hyperventilation, and interferes with the performance.

Unfortunately human pride can be so strong that fear of public humiliation or disgrace often produces the same degree of emotional panic as meeting a tiger. The general name given for this kind of physical state is arousal. Long-term arousal can affect our physical health. It is called stress and is one of the most studied areas of psychology because it affects so many different people in so very different ways. Long-term stress suppresses the body's immune system, makes us very jumpy and alert to potential threats. It also interferes with judgement so that we are less likely to make sensible, rational decisions or to appraise what is going on realistically. So what is anxiety or performance anxiety? How do we cope with it as performers and how can we help avoid anxiety? These are questions I will endeavour to answer in the course of this essay.

What is anxiety?

The feeling of anxiety is very common. Some people refer to it as nerves and everyone, musician or non-musician, has experienced anxiety at one time or another. The feeling of general uneasiness, a sense of foreboding and a feeling of tension is something that happens in our day-to-day lives.

Anxiety has both a physiological and a psychological aspect and it is the psychological aspect that affects the way we interpret sensations (Clarke et al 2000). We can become anxious in situations merely because we perceive a threat even where there is none. William James, an early psychologist, suggested that all human emotions actually come from our perception of the situation/condition we are in (Hayes 1999): we do not weep because we feel sorrow: we feel sorrow because we weep. Further studies (Schachter and Singer as cited in Hayes 1999) concluded that although it is our awareness of the situation that produces the emotion we actually feel, it is our physical condition which influences how strongly we actually feel it. In a performance situation, we don't feel anxious because of performing, the situation is anxious because of the way we feel. This describes Pathological anxiety mentioned presently.

Several types of clinical anxiety have been identified:

1. Reactive anxiety results from inadequate preparation.
2. Adaptive anxiety is when the body adapts to a threatening situation by increasing our state of arousal. This means that a certain amount of anxiety may in fact improve performance and I will look into this shortly.
3. Maladaptive anxiety is where the anxiety takes over and has a negative effect.
4. Pathological anxiety is when arousal occurs in situations where we can't identify what we are afraid of. Either that or we know we can't be harmed but still focus on feelings of anxiety.

So, what is performance Anxiety?

There are three qualities that a successful performer must have: a) a technical control of their instrument, b) good taste in using this technique musically and artistically and c) the courage to do this in front of an audience. There are few activities that can produce tension and anxiety as quickly and as thoroughly as performing in public.

Most performers have experienced performance anxiety in some form and to various degrees. This fear may be experienced while preparing for a performance, for days or even weeks before hand, and not just while performing. It can be experienced in the present (stage fright) as apprehension (fear of what could happen) and arousal (anticipation). Performance anxiety is no different from general anxiety. Feelings of fear and apprehension are accompanied by increased and prolonged physiological arousal. Severe anxiety is where the arousal is too high for optimal performance. This arousal may be normal and temporary, or abnormal and long lasting and symptoms can be cognitive, behavioural and physiological. Research (Steptoe 1989) shows that the processes underlying musical performance anxiety indicate that cognitive, behavioural and physiological factors are involved.

Physiological reactions to stress and anxiety include difficulty concentrating, loss of appetite, increased heart rate, and shortness of breath, dizziness, butterflies, shaking knees, shaking hands and sweaty palms. Generally the physiological symptoms are part of the fight or flight reflex. Measurements taken during studies of performance anxiety also showed raised levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline in the urine and this causes the hyper-alertness mentioned previously. This indicates activation of the nervous system (Deutsch 1999) and these physiological reactions interfere with performing by making it difficult to control finger actions and breathing.

Cognitive symptoms of anxiety include fear of making mistakes and feelings of inadequacy and worrying about things happening. Behavioural symptoms are not being able to do things, which normally happen naturally.

The three components of performance anxiety (physiological, cognitive and behavioural as mentioned previously) are the same as in general anxiety and are not always co-related (Lehrer in Grindea 1995). Sometimes the symptoms of performance anxiety come from one group and at other times all three. Interestingly, performance anxiety seems to affect more females than males (Deutsch 1999). Abel et al (1990) puts this down to the theory that males are less able to express their feelings than females.

Levels of performance anxiety vary considerably between musicians, as do the effects that anxiety has on their performances. Age seems to be significant in the matter of performance anxiety suggesting that as they get older, professional musicians are more able to cope with stress (Clarke et al. 2000). The development of strategies for coping may increase with age and experience. Inability to communicate is usually not due to lack of desire or lack of ability or talent but is usually the result of physical tension, flawed mental attitudes and social pressures. The one thing that is not clear is whether physical tensions cause the flawed mental attitudes or do flawed mental attitudes cause the physical tensions? Further research may shed light on this.

The transactional model of stress suggests that anxiety occurs when an individual believes that they do not have the ability to handle the demands of a situation (Reactive anxiety). Studies have indicated that high levels of anxiety are related to low levels of confidence (Abel et al 1990). Mastery of task and anxiety are related. Research has found that if the task is simple or well learned so that the correct responses are dominant, then an audience enhances task performances (Zajonc as cited in Lloyd & Mayes 1999). If the task is poorly learned such that incorrect responses are likely to be dominant, then an audience inhibits task performance. Therefore the general effect of an audience is to enhance the likelihood of dominant responses. The argument therefore is that the presence of others increases drive and thereby enhances the performance of well-learned tasks and inhibits the performance of poorly learned tasks.

Picard (1999) states that literature on Performance Anxiety is contradictory. Some research stresses Performance Anxiety's detrimental effects while others deal with the positive effects but most research so far on the causes of anxiety, has focused on brain processes and psychological factors such as cognitive processes and learning processes. From the earliest work on anxiety, researchers have consistently reported a negative correlation between high levels of anxiety and achievement. The effects of anxiety on achievement are quite clear. Anxiety can be both the cause and effect of failure. Performers play badly because they are anxious and their poor performance increases their anxiety.

But it is suggested that some anxiety is good for us as performers (Adaptive anxiety). It may actually help us to perform better in some situations (Hallam 1998), and while anxiety can be negative, musicians tend to respond to anxiety rather than be affected by it - indeed many performers argue that they need to be aroused in order to perform well (Steptoe 1989) and the Yerkes-Dodson law (Eysenck 1998) states that performance is enhanced with mild levels of anxiety.

However performance begins to suffer if the anxiety becomes too great (Maladaptive anxiety). Experience of traumatic events producing anxiety has a long history in psychology. One bad experience of performing leads to another. The experience becomes internalised through a process of conditioning and so the fear is reproduced in later situations. Anxiety becomes a response to something that may happen and not a response to something that does happen. This is the Catastrophe Theory and it was originally a mathematical model (Hardy & Parfitt 1991). The 'vicious circle' becomes possible where the perception of mistakes leads to the increase of anxiety, leading to more mistakes until the performance collapses. Anxiety and stress may also affect the self-reflective capacity that we as human beings have (Gross 1995). This in turn may influence self-esteem and faith in one's ability, which may also increase the anxiety, felt, and increases the likelihood of pathological anxiety developing.

So, why is anxiety so common - particularly since it is an unpleasant experience? Like most psychological disorders, general anxiety tends to run in families. Torgerson (as cited in Eysenck 1998) found that anxiety states were around twice as common in close relatives. His evidence from twin studies suggested that there might be a genetic basis to general anxiety but it did not appear to be a strong influence. Kemp (1996) claims that performance anxiety is most likely to affect those who have a tendency to neuroticism and that musicians have more anxious, neurotic personalities than most of the general population. It is difficult though, to assess whether this is because a nervous disposition helps you become a musician or if musical performance leads to anxiety. So is anxiety a personality trait shared by those who become musicians or is there something about performing that leads to pathological anxiety? In other words is anxiety a 'trait' (due to personality) or is it a 'state' (due to the particular circumstance)?

This is a difficult question to answer. Steptoe, A. & Fidler, H. (1987) found that there was a direct correlation between performance anxiety and neuroticism (a personality 'trait') leading us to believe that there may be a connection between personality and performance anxiety. Eysenck (Robinson 2000) also proposed that personality was made up of many traits and that these traits give rise to tendencies to behave in particular ways, including being anxious. In addition, Kemp (1996) thinks that it is important to make a distinction between 'trait' anxiety, (your tendency to be anxious) and 'state' anxiety (Which is when a person's anxiety levels are affected by a situation.). However in reality the difference between 'state' and 'trait' is not as clear-cut. A person's tendency to anxiety will influence the level of response they give to a situation but in fact, the situation may be stressful and the performer will react to it and not their innate tendency to be anxious. Some performers are anxious in many situations while some situations are especially anxiety provoking. (State anxiety) Skinner's belief (Robinson 2000) was that our environment determined our behaviour and we should also be aware that the mere physical presence of some people could have an influence on thoughts, feelings and actions whether or not the person is involved with the performer as another group member.

Many researchers (e.g. Hamann & Sobaje 1983) believe that far from being a negative influence, 'State' anxiety (When a person's anxiety levels are affected by a situation) has motivational and drive properties that are of benefit to performance. Kemp (1996) also thinks anxiety can be motivational. Arousal can be enhanced by anxiety and therefore heightens the degrees of sensitivity and imagination. In other words, a small amount of anxiety is not only normal but also it is helpful and necessary to perform tasks more efficiently. Hamann and Sobaje (1983) showed that levels of 'state' anxiety could actually assist a performance. Clearly this correlates with research (Steptoe 1989 and Hallam 1998) and the Yerkes-Dodson law (Eysenck 1998) as mentioned before.

Hamann (1982) also managed to demonstrate a relationship between trait and state anxiety: performers with high trait anxiety experienced greater increases in state anxiety than those with lower trait anxiety. Moreover, Hamann found that students who had a high level of mastery on their instrument benefited more from the high levels of state anxiety then those who shared the same levels of trait anxiety but possessed low mastery. This confirms Zajonc's research (as cited in Lloyd & Mayes 1999) mentioned previously, but clearly there is still opportunity for more research.

So, the causes of anxiety can be many different things and the factors that may contribute to performance anxiety are many: too much practise, too little practise (Reactive anxiety) fear of illness, other people's expectations, the pursuit of technical perfection, performing ('state' and pathological anxiety) and a predisposed tendency to anxiety. (Trait anxiety and maladaptive anxiety) Identifying the cause of your anxiety is important and identifying which group your symptoms come from is significant in deciding which 'therapy' to pursue. Anxiety is an intrinsic part of human nature and a lot of research has been focused on how to harness stress and turn it into a positive force. If you learn why something happens, it usually becomes less frightening, (Jones 2000) but unfortunately tension plays a disproportionate part of everyday life for many performing artists and they have to find a way to cope.

Coping Strategies

The obvious cure is avoidance of what gives you anxiety. This is not an option for most musicians and luckily there are countless ways of coping with the stress of performing. Sometimes advice on how to cope with stress seems far removed from the special nature of the situations musicians are in. But in fact the physical and mental manifestations of nerves and anxiety are the same for everyone no matter what activity they are involved in. The problem for music performers is that anxiety is usually counter-productive to the task at hand. There are several 'coping strategies' that can be employed in an attempt to control performance anxiety. For instance there are relaxation techniques and alternative medicines as well as self-help (such as diet), medication, counselling, therapy and use of combinations of treatments.

Folk-culture suggests changes in diet as a means of calming anxiety prior to a performance. It is believed, for example, that bananas act as a natural beta-blocker. Others suggest medication and advocate the use of drugs like tranquillisers, beta-blockers and corticosteroids. These are more likely to help the physiological symptoms because Beta-blockers block the body's response to adrenaline and corticosteroids work by reducing inflammation through suppression of the immune responses (Dr. Sarah Smith, personal communication). As mentioned previously, Adrenalin enters the bloodstream whenever you face a stressful situation. It causes hyper-alertness, which can add to performance (as already discussed) but if present in too great amounts can cause all the symptoms mentioned previously with regard to performance anxiety. Drugs stop this from happening. While it is true that drugs can be effective in the treatment of performance anxiety, it can only ever be a short-term solution to the problem due to the addictive nature of the drugs involved - even though they are commonly prescribed for performance anxiety. For the same reasons, alcohol is not the answer either.

Psychologists make a distinction between two basic types of coping strategy - problem focused strategy and emotion focused strategy (Robinson 2000) Problem focused strategy attempts to deal with those aspects of the environment that are responsible for the stress and anxiety experienced. (That is, dealing directly with the stressful situation.) Emotion focused strategy attempts to change the way a person thinks about a stressful situation. Sufferers would try to deal with the emotional consequences of the stress rather than try to change the situation. Often an active problem focused strategy is more effective in dealing with anxiety (Robinson 2000) probably because changing the perception of the situation changes the way a person thinks anyway.

It is thought that performance anxiety represents a particularly appropriate therapeutic target for cognitive-behavioural therapy (Kendrick et al 1982). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is a major approach involved in the treatment of anxiety. It draws on methods from both behavioural and cognitive approaches.

Behavioural therapies assume that anxiety is a learned or conditioned response to a particular situation and the therapy used attempts to break the link between the situation and response. A sufferer may be exposed to the feared situation in increasing amounts while employing a relaxation technique. Behaviour therapy however, is frowned upon within the world of psychotherapists because, despite being useful, it is seen as manipulative and humiliating (Gross 1995).

Cognitive therapies assume that distortions in a person's thoughts and beliefs can lead to a number of problems including anxiety. Becoming aware of negative thoughts and trying to substitute them with more positive thoughts is part of the treatment used in cognitive-behavioural therapy (Steptoe & Fidler 1987). Mentally picturing the situation helps some people overcome their anxiety. Coping imagery can be useful too. If you can anticipate what might go wrong and come up with scenarios where you cope then you are less likely to feel apprehensive. Imagination is a powerful tool and must not be underestimated.

Combining both these methods, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy has proved more effective than behavioural or cognitive methods alone (Kendrick et al 1982). Changing both the view of the performing situation and giving positive experiences of performing can reduce anxiety. Sweeney and Horan (1982) also investigated the use of combinations of different strategies. Their experiment compared cue-controlled relaxation and cognitive restructuring and a combination of the two against a control condition. The combined treatment showed most benefits corroborating other research.

Other therapies are used in very similar ways. Systematic desensitisation aims to gradually replace the response of fear and anxiety with an alternative response. This was found to be a successful treatment for musicians (Deutsch 1999). Another is behaviour modification, which is specifically aimed at changing behaviour, and therefore behavioural symptoms, but it is not concerned with the person's thoughts and feelings. You are more likely to see positive behaviour if it is rewarded with positive reinforcement. As stated before, anxiety is accompanied by increased and prolonged physiological arousal. Basically by inducing people to reattribute their 'arousal' from a threatening source to a neutral or less threatening one, they can be helped to function more effectively in settings which induce their anxiety.

As you can see, understanding that your mind and body are linked is common to most therapies used to overcome performance anxiety. Psychodynamic is a term that encompasses those areas in psychology, which assume we are driven by the content in our minds. An important idea in the psychodynamic approach is the view that our childhood experiences have a considerable influence on our behaviour as adults. This would imply that the reason behind some incidences of performance anxiety might be some bad experience of performing in the informative years.

This method also implies that teachers can help on the 'shop floor' by not allowing anxiety to become an issue. This is also in line with Bandura's social learning theory, which encourages positive observation. Students performing to each other in informal gatherings can be helpful and will benefit those with signs of performance anxiety provided that favourable concepts of audiences are fostered. The younger this is done, the better. Picard (1999) thinks that music educators should bring students face to face with their fears. Nearly all players, amateur and professional, suffer from anxiety and there is no need to be ashamed of it. Other than in an exam scenario, in music performing there is no pass or fail, only performing as well as you can on the day. Joanna Macgregor (Jones 2000) believes that the pressure of competition and judgement causes a lot of anxiety. She was told, "When you perform, it's the most important thing in the world to you and at the same time it is not important at all. People are not going to die, the world isn't going to stop turning." If as a performer you can grasp this, it gives things a sense of proportion.

Another possible treatment is hypnotherapy. Usually this would consist of sessions of relaxation, suggestions including breathing, visual imagery and verbal suggestions linking these images to increased mental control. Hypnotherapy does appear to help performance anxiety (Stanton 1993) but further research is needed to compare the effectiveness of hypnotherapy to other therapies normally used to treat performance anxiety to truly evaluate its usefulness.

Alexander Technique has been shown to have some benefits in coping with performance anxiety (Valentine et al 1995). Many performers also use Yoga, massage, reflexology, t’ai chi or aikido to help them relax, although complete relaxation is neither possible nor musically appropriate (Gellrich 1991). Other performers advocate homeopathy, either consulting a Homeopath or using remedies that other performers have recommended.

Some performers also practise in extreme conditions to simulate the performance situation. For example, playing after you have run up and down the stairs simulates breathlessness and playing in really hot conditions can simulate conditions caused by excessive sweating. The theory behind this bizarre 'practice' based therapy is that having experienced these extremes you will be more able to cope with them when they occur in a performance situation.

So that they do not feel anxious because of under-preparation, there are also various things a performer can do at the first signs of performance anxiety to stop the process spiralling till they need professional help. For example, it is not a good idea for performers to play pieces in public if they have doubts about their ability to play them. It may seem like common sense, but making sure that they like the music on their programme may help. Starting the programme with an easier piece also gives a chance to warm up properly.

Practical, logical advice is often overlooked: Feeling comfortable is important so performers should avoid wearing clothes or shoes that are uncomfortable. Thinking about why you play music is helpful. Musicians must try to communicate and not think about their egos, which sometimes contribute to anxiety! (Trait anxiety)

On the night, they should allow lots of time to get to the venue and be relaxed as possible. They must take time once on stage to make sure that everything is as they want it to be. They must prepare well in advance - mentally and physically, practise with and without the accompanist as much as possible. They should get to know their fellow ensemble players. If they are comfortable with them, then they are less likely to feel nervous of them or of the situation. They must try going back to basics and remember that performing is what making music is about. It's nothing 'big' simply part of their life. The more importance they give it, the more likely they are to feel anxious about it. This is basically cognitive therapy and behavioural modification all rolled into one - the performer is in control of the situation.

Confidence and a sense of achievement are the best substitutes for fear or anxiety. It is worth assessing just what the sufferer thinks music making is supposed to be about. Remember the three Cs and the three Es. The 3 Cs - Concentrate, Competence and Confidence. If you concentrate when you practise, this will lead to competence and confidence. The 3 Es - Enthusiasm, Enjoyment and Entertainment. Your audience want to enjoy the performance. If they sense the performer is having a good time then that will encourage them to believe in what the performer is doing.

Some approaches attempt to help the physiological symptoms of performance anxiety while others concentrate on the cognitive or behavioural symptoms. Nagel et al (1989) believed that an approach using combinations of therapies that targeted all symptoms should be used for the treatment of Performance Anxiety. They showed in a case study of a pianist that desensitisation, cognitive restructuring and in vivo performance practice resulted in lower levels of anxiety. This corroborates the evidence found by Kendrick et al (1982) and Sweeney and Horan (1982). It would appear that the most successful treatments are those that combine relaxation training with developing realistic expectations.

Ways in which future research might increase understanding

Unfortunately a lot of statements about performance anxiety are based on speculation and biased assessment rather than on research results (Hamann 1982). But from a review of the literature, it would appear that apart from Kemp (1996) there has only been a little research on the possible correlation between personality types and performance anxiety. Further research may help music educators to help all pupils with this aspect of performance and to identify the pupils who need the most help in this area. Additional research would be helpful to therapists, psychologists, musicians and educators so that problems could be identified earlier on by these groups and hence the problem would not spiral out of control.

There also there seems little research on the advantage or disadvantage of age and experience over performance anxiety. As mentioned before, as they get older, professional musicians are more able to cope with stress. (Clarke et al. 2000) But this could be for a variety of reasons: excessive anxiety may cause people to leave the profession, (And therefore not be included in statistics) or the development of strategies for coping may increase with age and experience. There is clearly potential for research in this area, investigating the roles of age, experience and confidence.

It is important that self-reported anxiety be studied alongside the physiological and behavioural components of performance anxiety. Research (Dews & Williams 1989) suggested that emotional and psychological issues needed more research. For Example:  

1. The connection between self-esteem and the anxiety of performance.
2. The role of the parent and educator.
3. The possible role of certain stresses and specialised counselling.
4. The role of educational institutions in stress and coping.

Most studies have been involved with reducing anxiety. In these studies researchers assumed that anxiety decreased the quality of performance. But in reality it was found that performers with high amounts of formal training performed in a superior manner in anxious situations. Is there a significant relationship between performance environment and the performers training? It would be both interesting and useful to pursue more study in this area. Comparing all the different therapies may be useful (As suggested by Wilson in Hargreaves and North 1997). It would help identify the most useful strategies for certain personalities.

Summary

There is much fascination with the study of performance anxiety. Performers feel a need to understand this phenomenon if they are to be in control of their body and instrument in performance situations. Musicians agree that performing in public stimulates performance anxiety but how musicians respond varies and that anxiety can help or hinder depending on the intensity of anxiety felt. Anxiety should be seen as a helpful warning that alerts us to possible danger and will allow us to take steps to avoid that which we feel anxious about. Errors made in practice should be viewed simply as ways not to play and not as mistakes. Everything must be kept in context. Patience, persistence, self-awareness and the attitude of self-searching will all help in the control of performance anxiety (Havas in Grindea 1995).

With emphasis on relaxation, preparation and self-discovery, anxiety can be controlled. Handling performance anxiety is as much about your attitude of mind as it is about practical solutions. There is no more potent cure for performance anxiety than the knowledge that you can do it. Learning to control our feelings and anxiety through various techniques of relaxation, therapy and the all-important preparation of practise can help us as performers to triumph over performance anxiety.

References

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Clarke, E., Davidson, J.W., Windsor, W.L., & Pitts, S. (2000) Distance Learning Module: The Psychology of Performance Sheffield: University of Sheffield

Deutsch, D. (1999) The Psychology of Music 2^nd Edition London: Academic Press

Dews, C.L.B. & Williams, M.S. (1989) Student Musician's Personality Styles, Stresses and Coping Patterns Psychology of Music 17 37-47

Eysenck, M. (1998) Psychology, an Integrated Approach Harlow: Longman

Gellrich, M. (1991) Concentration and Tension British Journal of Music Education 8 167-179

Grindea, C (1995) Tensions in the Performance of Music London: Kahn & Averill

Gross, R. (1995) Themes, Issues and Debates in Psychology Boldon: Hodder & Stoughton Educational

Hallam, S. (1998) Instrumental Teaching Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers

Hamann, D. L. (1982) An Assessment of Anxiety in Instrumental and Vocal Performances Journal of Research in Music Education 30 77-90

Hamann, D.L. & Sobaje, M. (1983) Anxiety and the College Musician: a study of performance conditions and subject variables Psychology of Music 11 37-50

Hardy, L. & Parfitt, G. (1991) A Catastrophe Model of Anxiety and Performance British Journal of Psychology 82 163-178

Hargreaves, D. & North, A. (1997) The Social Psychology of Music Oxford: Oxford University Press

Hayes, N. (1999) Teach Yourself Psychology London: Hodder and Stoughton

Jones, K. (2000) Keeping Your Nerve London: Faber Music Limited

Kemp, A.E. (1996) The Musical Temperament Oxford: Oxford University Press

Kendrick, M.J., Craig, K.D., Lawson, D.M. & Davidson, P.O. (1982) Cognitive and Behavioural Therapy for Musical-Performance Anxiety Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 50(3) 353-362

Lloyd, P. & Mayes, A. (1999) Introduction to Psychology: An Integrated Approach London: Diamond Books

Nagel, J.J., Himle, D.P. & Papsdorf, J.D. (1989) Cognitive-Behavioural Treatment of Musical Performance Anxiety Psychology of Music 17 12-21

Picard, A. (1999) Qualitative Pedagogical Inquiry Into Cognitive Modulation of Performance Anxiety Council for Research in Music Education Bulletin Spring 1999 62-76

Robinson, D. (2000) 101 Key Ideas - Psychology London: Hodder and Stoughton

Stanton, H.E. (1993) Research Note: Alleviation of Performance Anxiety Through Hypnotherapy Psychology of Music 21 78-82

Steptoe, A. & Fidler, H. (1987) Stage Fright in Orchestral Musicians: a study of cognitive and Behavioural strategies in performance anxiety British Journal of Psychology 78 241-249

Steptoe, A. (1989) Stress, Coping and Stage Fright in Professional Musicians Psychology of Music 17 3-11

Sweeney, G.A. & Horan, J.J. (1982) Separate and combined effects of cue-controlled relaxation and cognitive restructuring in the treatment of musical performance anxiety Journal of Counselling Psychology 29 486-497

Valentine, E.R., Fitzgerald, D.F.P., Gorton, T.L., Hudson, J.A. & Symonds, E.R. (1995) The effect of lessons in the Alexander Technique on Music Performance in high and low stress situations Psychology of Music 23 129-141

 

 

From "Mostlywind"

考試或比賽前需到老師家密集練習嗎？

作者﹕嫿真

若是對於學生有很重要的考試或是大型比賽，有老師的陪伴以及老師願提供能使學生專心的環境未嘗不好。

筆者曾經見過某位頗負盛名的教師，不管在大考小考、各種比賽或是平日都會讓學生留下來繼續練習。沒有獨自的琴房，並且還有兩三人以上在不同的角落或是家人所使用的房間練習，這樣的學習態度和環境並不是那麼好。筆者也曾經問過學生這樣的效果是否良好，通常學生和家長都非常樂意這樣的模式，認為老師很認真，並且讓孩子多練一點對於考試是有利的。

音樂是一種需要自主思考的藝術，其實這樣的訓練方式是無法真正成長的，演奏出來的東西也會很硬。學生需要有自我的時間去嘗試以及動腦、耳觀察和研究自己的音樂。而練習時間最好也不要有其他的雜音或是樂器聲。據筆者觀察，常常希望依賴老師的學生對於音樂都沒有自己的見解和看法，演奏出來的音樂總是一板一眼，且技巧也大多數比較不紮實。

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美東時間: 2008-02-03 19:57:49 PM 【萬年曆】

比賽的威力（上）

每年一度的香港校際音樂節可算是學界盛事，各中小學校和器樂教師都忙碌地為學生準備及練習，務求取得佳績。新學年將至，老師和家長又將為明年的音樂節籌算一番，或許，就讓我們淺談有關比賽的正負面影響，好讓我們為來屆的比賽作出更佳的準備。

比賽是一種有效的學習工具，透過參與和準備，學生的技巧、音樂表達和自信心都得以提升。但在這以競爭為主的社會裏，比賽往往被過分抬舉，導致學習宗旨改變或失去平衡，為學生帶來看不到的傷害。所以，教師和家長在準備比賽時，應為學生作出「雙重準備」，使他們在技巧和心理上均取得平衡的預備。

正確態度看待比賽

比賽存在競爭的氣氛，產生勝敗之別；獎項和名次為人帶來喜悅，招來羨慕目光，但切勿過分沉溺在這興奮的感覺，因為過分追求名利會不知不覺地改變你對事情的價值觀和學習宗旨，也令學習內容失去平衡。獎項和名次只是短暫的光彩，並非習樂的最終點。所以，教師和家長應助學生建立以自我實力測試、開拓自己眼界為本的比賽目標，以比賽為增進自己技巧的機會和評核的準則。

演奏不只是取悅評判

在美國期間，我多次統籌地區性的鋼琴比賽，參與的教師和學生數目眾多，每級的比賽質素也十分高。可是，每年比賽都被一股強烈的「緊張」和「比較」氣氛所濃罩。家長多番批評，學生互相比較，比賽就像為了輸贏而已。有一次，我對一位學生表示欣賞他的彈奏，但他只回答一句：「沒關係，我沒有獲獎。」唉！我真為他感到可惜，因為他把自己優美的演奏忘得一乾二淨，腦子裏只顧念評判的筆尖和名次。這有什麼意思呢？難道奏一首好曲只為一位聽眾－－評判？斷乎不是！在席的觀眾才是我們的目標，要贏取他們的共鳴，正是彈奏的最終目的。所以，教導孩子誠懇地彈出優美感人的音樂，讓觀眾產生台上台下的真實情感交流，遠勝過那種競爭的狹窄眼光。

其實，學生不能以名次和獎項作為參賽的終點，因為勝負結果受很多因素影響，如學生臨場的心理狀態、評判對樂曲的傳譯和其喜好、環境、樂器等……縱然學生付上最大的努力，「勝利」也不是必然的。「欲求不達」是生命學習中不可缺少的一環，既是這樣，我們就應該把目標放遠一點，通過比賽機會為生命添上更有意義的一課。

文：彭雯蕙博士

自《開心爸媽》(4/9/2012)

跳級考試

筆者提過適當考試可以對自己的能力作出肯定，但必定極之反對每年參加考試。如果這樣說，即是起碼隔年考一次試，有些人兩年一次，甚至有人三年一次，隔更長都有，那麼豈不是跳級？這是正確的，每一位學習鋼琴的學生都可以跳級考試。

所謂「養兵千日．用兵一時」，眾所周知，每次參與考試，最少花上數個月甚至一年時間作準備。如果年年參加考試，除了很花時間外，還會失去學習其他作品的機會，對學生的發展是有影響。在學習鋼琴一年後報名考試，經過準備後考試完畢，事實上前後共學了兩年時間。當一般學生學了一年鋼琴後，報考應該是二級。除了一些個別因素，如學生年紀太小，筆者不鼓勵學生報考一級。

學生考完二級後，是否翌年要報考三級呢？是不應該的，應該繼續學習其他作品，待鋼琴技巧底子打好再考慮去考試，再過一年後，應該是四級了。

一般情況下，學生得到導師鼓勵而跳級，無形中在精神上是一個很大的鼓舞，而跳級的學生，並非要求每天要練習三、四小時，因為筆者已提及過，香港過於著重學術性科目，講資料多寡，而忽視解決問題的能力，「考試」風氣根深柢固，以致平日應付學校功課及考試已經很吃力，一般學生平均能夠抽出一小時已不錯了，由於普遍學生練琴時間相當有限，筆者盡量不在這方面給予學生壓力，而是教導其有效的練習方法，務求事半功倍。

練習時要集中精神及有方法，否則只會浪費時間，其真正目的，應該是「一次比一次好」。正確練琴方法，就是在最短時間內練出最好的效果，選擇考試曲目方面，通常旋律性高的作品會令學生更有興趣練習。不過千萬不要忽略其底子，練習考試曲目的同時，不應立刻放棄學習其他的作品，當然臨近考試就無可厚非了，盡量保持水準。

由於每個人的情況都不同，最了解自己水準的人，就是導師。不過，首先要明白自己的練琴時間是否足夠，就算「鍵盤魔王」李斯特，以其天份也要每天練琴八小時，世上沒有不勞而穫的東西。其次是練琴的方法是否正確，如果不正確，就算每天練琴數小時都是徒然的。最重要還是家長的配合，因為對學生影響甚大，子女練琴時，盡量令環境寧靜，另外支持子女參予比賽、演奏、欣賞音樂會，都是十分重要的。

自《約克之家》

五級樂理在香港

如果想報考英國皇家音樂學院六級或以上任何一樣樂器，那麼必須要完成「五級樂理」考試，並且考試及格，那麼，樂理是甚麼來的？簡單來說，樂理就是音樂的道理或理論。

為甚麼要學樂理？因為彈奏者所詮釋的是已化為符號的樂譜，在彈奏前必須懂得分析樂曲，這需要樂理知識輔助，熟悉樂理中各個符號、方式的流變，也有助於充分明瞭曲子的來龍去脈。

五級樂理學甚麼
先說五級樂理考甚麼，大致有以下內容：

i	計算拍子、補回小節線
ii	找寫混聲樂譜
iii	計算音程
iv	移調
v	基本音樂理論知識
vi	樂器認識
vii	基本和聲
viii	音階
ix	旋律創作
x	終止式

這些完全是最基本的音樂知識，這些知識是可以在詮釋樂曲時發揮，就像欣賞一件雕塑品，若能了解藝術家的創作過程、理念、材質、製法，所能領會的層次必和不知詳情的觀賞者不同。

五級樂理在香港
五級樂理，由於要考試及格才可報考高級樂器考試，在香港學習五級樂理可說是出現很怪的現象，因為香港社會風氣過份功利，部份學生不是為尋求更多音樂知識，而只是為了考試及格，結果為市面製造商機，出現大量「五級樂理課程」，甚至「五級樂理速成班」，完全只為了令學生考試及格，更甚的有家長想著「愈平愈好」，從不考慮質素，考試過後，學過的東西就完全忘記得一乾二淨。

筆者經常都會教學生五級樂理，但是給筆者看到現象，有些學生連音樂最基本的音階和調號，完全不懂得寫，上課態度不認真，回家又不溫習，有問題又不尋求原因，學習目的就只是為了考試及格。試問這樣就算考到五級樂理，對日後面對更深一層學習有幫助嗎？也許這就是香港教育制度帶來的禍害，對事情只懂生吞活剝，不但常常碰壁，其智慧也定必每況愈下。至於音階和調號難不難呢？其實不怎困難，在日常練習鋼琴或其他樂器，都有機會接觸的。

那麼，學五級樂理需要多長時間呢？以筆者的經驗，大約半年左右，每星期上課四十五分鐘已經很足夠，學習每樣課題都需要時間吸收，有問題要對症下藥，亦要了解運行的規律。至於何時開始會較適合呢？大約樂器程度達四級以上，就可以學習五級樂理。每年每逢二月、六月、十月將會舉行樂理考試，以多年所見，十月是最多考生的，是因為七月及八月是暑假，不少學生趁著暑假的空閒學習，九月開學學校功課未至最繁重階段，所以五級樂理舊試題在暑假隨時搶購一空；六月則是最少考生的，原因是六月接近學校期終試，一般情況下，筆者都會事先詢問家長及學生是否能夠兼顧，才決定報考六月。

自《約克之家》